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Betel

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(Redirected from Piper betle)
Not to be confused with betel nut, which is the fruit of the areca palm.
For the mixture of betel leaf and areca nut, see Betel nut chewing. For the biblical place, see Bethel.

Betel
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Magnoliids
Order: Piperales
Family: Piperaceae
Genus: Piper
Species:
P. betle
Binomial name
Piper betle

Betel (Piper betle) is a species of flowering plant in the pepper family Piperaceae, native to Southeast Asia. It is an evergreen, dioecious[1] vine, with glossy heart-shaped leaves and white catkins. Betel plants are cultivated for their leaves which are most commonly used as flavoring in chewing areca nut.

Etymology

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The term betel was derived from the Tamil/Malayalam word vettila via Portuguese.[2][3]

Distribution

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Piper betle is originally native to Southeast Asia, from India, Philippines, Timor-Leste and Indonesia and Peninsular Malaysia to Indochina, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar. Its cultivation has spread along with the Austronesian migrations and trade to other parts of Island Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea and Melanesia, Micronesia, South Asia, the Maldives, Mauritius, Réunion Island, and Madagascar. It was introduced during the Colonial Era to the Caribbean by Indian indentured immigrants.[4][5]

Cultivation

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Betel leaf and Areca nut consumption in the world.

The betel leaf is cultivated mostly in South and Southeast Asia, from India[6] to Papua New Guinea.[7] It needs a compatible tree or a long pole for support. Betel requires well-drained fertile soil. Waterlogged, saline and alkali soils are unsuitable for its cultivation.[8]

In Bangladesh, farmers called barui[9] prepare a garden called a barouj in which to grow betel. The barouj is fenced with bamboo sticks and coconut leaves. The soil is plowed into furrows of 10 to 15 m length, 75 cm in width and 75 cm depth. Oil cakes, manure, and leaves are thoroughly incorporated with the topsoil of the furrows and wood ash. The cuttings are planted at the beginning of the monsoon season.

Betel plant cultivation in Bangladesh
Betel leaves in Kolkata market, West Bengal, India

Proper shade and irrigation are essential for the successful cultivation of this crop. Betel needs constantly moist soil, but there should not be excessive moisture. Irrigation is frequent and light, and standing water should not remain for more than half an hour.

Dried leaves and wood ash are applied to the furrows at fortnightly intervals and cow dung slurry is sprinkled. Application of different kinds of leaves at monthly intervals is believed advantageous for the growth of the betel. In three to six months, the vines reach 150 to 180 cm in height, and they will branch. Harvest begins with the farmer plucking the leaf and its petiole with his right thumb. The harvest lasts 15 days to one month. The betel plant has made its way to research labs of many Bangladesh chemical and food nutrition companies.

The harvested leaves are consumed locally and exported to other parts of Asia, the Middle East, Europe, and the Americas. Betel is grown and cultivated as an important crop in rural Bangladesh.[citation needed]

Cultural significance

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Main article: Betel nut chewing

The primary use of betel leaf is as a wrapper for the chewing of areca nut, or in modern times, tobacco, where it is mainly used to add flavour. The practice originated in the Philippines around 5,000 years ago, where the oldest remains of areca nuts and calcium from crushed sea shells have been found in the Duyong Cave archaeological site. It spread along with the Austronesian migrations to the rest of Southeast Asia, Taiwan, South China, and South Asia. It is unknown when or why betel leaves were first combined with areca nuts, since areca nuts can be chewed alone.[5]

While the practice of chewing Betel leaf existed even before the common era, with attested references from at least the 3rd century CE, the ingredient mix (paan/ betel quid) it was chewed with changed over time.[10] Areca nut, Calcium hydroxide and catechu were the historic ingredients, as referenced in texts from 9th century CE. Tobacco started to feature in the 20th century.[10][11] The practice of chewing betel leaf is on the decline, and now quid consisting of tobacco, areca nut, and limewater, known as gutka, is more popular.[11]

In India and Sri Lanka, a sheaf of betel leaves is traditionally offered as a mark of respect and auspicious beginnings. Occasions include greeting elders at wedding ceremonies, celebrating the New Year, and offering payment to physicians and astrologers, to whom money and/or areca nut, placed on top of the sheaf of leaves, are offered in thanks for blessings. In Bengali weddings, the bride is brought to the groom, seated on a platform and her face covered in betel leaves.

In Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, the inflorescence stalk of the betel tree, known as daka or "mustard stick", is consumed together with the leaves.[12][13]

It may also be used in cooking, usually raw, for its peppery taste. Use of binlang, or betel, has over a 300-year history in areas of China, where it was once promoted for medicinal use.[14]

Health effects

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Epidemiological studies demonstrate a close association between the incidence of cancer in India and the chewing of betel quid containing tobacco, areca nut, limewater and betel leaf.[15][medical citation needed] Chewing paan (betel quid) is strongly associated with a higher risk of developing head and neck cancer,[16] as well as oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OPSCC), a form of cancer that affects the mouth, tonsils, and throat.[17] Multiple studies demonstrate that betel quid without added tobacco also causes esophageal cancer, and in some instances, liver cancer.[18] Betel quid chewing can also cause stillbirth, premature birth, and low birth weight.[19][20][21]

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) accept the scientific evidence that chewing tobacco and areca nut is carcinogenic to humans.[22][23][24][25] As with chewing tobacco, chewing betel quid with tobacco and areca nut is discouraged by preventive healthcare efforts.[17]

While various scales exist to measure betel quid dependency, more comprehensive and validated tools are needed to assess this dependency effectively across different populations.[26]

Chemical composition

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Chemistry of betel leaf varies geographically and is mostly chavibetol dominant.[1][27] Safrole is a major component of Sri Lankan Piper betle.[28] Eugenol, isoeugenol, and germacrene D are other dominant compounds in other chemotypes.[29]

Leaves also contain eugenol, chavicol, hydroxychavicol,[30][31] and caryophyllene.[27]

Stems contain phytosterols (β-sitosterol, β-daucosterol, stigmasterol etc.), alkaloids (piperine, pellitorine, piperdardine, guineensine etc.), lignan (pinoresinol) and other components. Some of them are oleanolic acid, dehydropipernonaline, piperolein-B, bornyl cis-4-hydroxycinnamate and bornyl p-coumarate.[32][33][34][35]

Roots contain aristololactam A-II, a phenylpropene, 4-allyl resorcinol and a diketosteroid stigmast-4-en-3,6-dione.[36]

Its essential oil consists of 50 different compounds, of which major components are eugenol, caryophyllene, terpinolene, terpinene, cadinene, and 3-carene.[37]

Economics

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Betel leaves for selling in the market
Betel in Bangladesh
A Bengali woman selling betel leaves in Howrah

Betel vines are cultivated throughout southeast Asia, in plots typically 20 to 2,000 square metres (0.005 to 0.5 acre) in size.

Malaysian farmers cultivate four types of betel plants: sirih India, sirih Melayu, sirih Cina and sirih Udang. The harvest is then sold in bundles of leaves, each bundle costing in 2011 between MYR 0.30 and 0.50 ($0.07 and $0.12).

In Sri Lanka, betel is grown all over the country. Commercial production of betel, with bigger leaves with dark green colour combined with thickness, known as “kalu bulath”, is confined to a few districts, such as Kurunagala, Gampaha, Kegalle, Kalutara and Colombo.[8] These are sold at a wholesaler in lots of 1,000 leaves. According to a report published by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),[38] a successful betel farm in Sri Lanka can provide a supplemental income to a farmer by providing six days of work every six months and net income when the leaf prices are attractive.[39]

The FAO study found the successful farm's yield to be 18,000 leaves per 150 square feet (14 m2). The additional salary and income to the Sri Lankan betel grower, assuming he or she provides all needed labor and keeps all net profit, is SL Rs. 1635 per 150 square feet (14 m2) of betel farm every 6 months ($90 per "decimal" per year, or $9000 per acre per year). If the farmer hires outside labor to tend the betel vines and harvest the crop, the net income to the betel farm owner was SL Rs. 735 per 150 square feet (14 m2) of betel farm every six months ($40 per decimal per year, or $4000 per acre per year). The market prices for betel leaves vary with the wet and dry seasons in Sri Lanka, and in 2010 averaged SL Rs. 200–400 per 1,000 leaves ($1.82 to $3.64 per 1000 leaves).[40] The FAO study assumes no losses from erratic weather and no losses during storage and transportation of perishable betel leaves. These losses are usually between 35% and 70%.[41]

In Bangladesh, betel leaf farming yields vary by region and vine variety. In one region where betel leaf cultivation is the main source of income for farmers, a total of 2,825 hectares of land is dedicated to betel vine farming.[42] The average production costs for these betel farms in Bangladesh are about Tk 300,000 per hectare ($4,000 per hectare, $16 per decimal). The farm owners can earn a profit of over Tk 100,000 per hectare ($1,334 per hectare, $5.34 per decimal).

In India, a 2006 research reported[41] betel vines being cultivated on about 55,000 hectares of farmland, with an annual production worth of about IN Rs. 9000 million ($200 million total, averaging $1,455 per acre). The betel farming industry, the report claims, supports about 400,000 – 500,000 agricultural families.

A March 2011 report claims that betel farming is on a decline in India.[43] While in ideal conditions some farms may gross annual incomes after expenses of over IN Rs. 26,000 per 10 decimal farm ($5,780 per acre), a betel farm's income is highly erratic from year to year, due to varying rainfall patterns, temperature, and spoilage rates of 35% to 70% during transport over poor infrastructure.[41] Simultaneously, the demand for betel leaves has been dropping in India due to acceptance of gutkha (chewing tobacco) by consumers over betel leaf-based ‘‘paan’’ preparation.[44] The report cites betel leaf trading has dropped by 65% from 2000 to 2010 and created an oversupply. As a result, the report claims Indian farmers do not find betel farming lucrative anymore.[43]

See also

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Objects and Historical Representation
  • Assamese 'Paan-Tamul' tradition.
    Assamese 'Paan-Tamul' tradition.
  • A Phoenix wing shaped- betel leaf plate in Vietnam.
    A Phoenix wing shaped- betel leaf plate in Vietnam.
  • Betel bag, New Guinea, nineteenth century MHNT.
    Betel bag, New Guinea, nineteenth century MHNT.
  • A Chinese Peasant Selling Betel, 1793-1794, by William Alexander, Department of Prints and Drawings, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.
    A Chinese Peasant Selling Betel, 1793-1794, by William Alexander, Department of Prints and Drawings, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.

References

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  1. ^ a b Rimando, Agnes M.; Han, Byung Hoon; Park, Jeong Hill; Cantoria, Magdalena C. (1986). "Studies on the constituents of Philippine Piper betle leaves". Archives of Pharmacal Research. 9 (2): 93–97. doi:10.1007/BF02857217. ISSN 0253-6269. S2CID 98263258.
  2. ^ "betel". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  3. ^ Portuguese Vocables in Asiatic Languages: From the Portuguese Original of M S R Dalgado. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. 1988. ISBN 812060413X.
  4. ^ "Piper betle L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
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  7. ^ Cassey, Brian (9 November 2013). "Chewing over a betel ban". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
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  11. ^ a b Toprani, Rajendra; Patel, Daxesh (2013). "Betel leaf: Revisiting the benefits of an ancient Indian herb". South Asian Journal of Cancer. 2 (3): 140–141. doi:10.4103/2278-330X.114120 (inactive 1 November 2024). PMC 3892533. PMID 24455591.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
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  14. ^ Levin, Dan (19 August 2010). "Despite Risks, an Addictive Treat Fuels a Chinese City". The New York Times. Retrieved 16 November 2019.
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  16. ^ "Head and Neck Cancers". NCI. 29 March 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
  17. ^ a b A, Fatima; Zohaib, J (4 December 2020). "Oropharyngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma". Definitions (Updated ed.). Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. doi:10.32388/G6TG1L. PMID 33085415. S2CID 229252540. Bookshelf ID: NBK563268. Retrieved 7 February 2021 – via NCBI. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  18. ^ Secretan, Béatrice; Straif, Kurt; Baan, Robert; Grosse, Yann; El Ghissassi, Fatiha; Bouvard, Véronique; Benbrahim-Tallaa, Lamia; Guha, Neela; Freeman, Crystal; Galichet, Laurent; Cogliano, Vincent (2009). "A review of human carcinogens—Part E: tobacco, areca nut, alcohol, coal smoke, and salted fish". The Lancet Oncology. 10 (11): 1033–1034. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(09)70326-2. PMID 19891056.
  19. ^ Vidyasagaran, A. L.; Siddiqi, K.; Kanaan, M. (2016). "Use of smokeless tobacco and risk of cardiovascular disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis" (PDF). European Journal of Preventive Cardiology. 23 (18): 1970–1981. doi:10.1177/2047487316654026. ISSN 2047-4873. PMID 27256827. S2CID 206820997.
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  23. ^ WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2008: the MPOWER package (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2008. ISBN 978-92-4-159628-2. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 8, 2008.
  24. ^ Warnakulasuriya, S.; Trivedy, C; Peters, TJ (2002). "Areca nut use: An independent risk factor for oral cancer". BMJ. 324 (7341): 799–800. doi:10.1136/bmj.324.7341.799. PMC 1122751. PMID 11934759.
  25. ^ Dave, Bhavana J.; Trivedi, Amit H.; Adhvatyu, Siddharth G. (1992). "Role of areca nut consumption in the cause of oral cancers. A cytogenetic assessment". Cancer. 70 (5): 1017–23. doi:10.1002/1097-0142(19920901)70:5<1017::AID-CNCR2820700502>3.0.CO;2-#. PMID 1515978. S2CID 196365532.
  26. ^ Deshpande, Ashwini; Nagi, Ravleen; Byatnal, Amit; Lingappa, Ashok; Ashok, Sujatha; Sahu, Pitambra (2023). "Instruments to Measure Betel Quid Dependency among Young and Adult Chewers – A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis". Contemporary Clinical Dentistry. 14 (3): 180–190. doi:10.4103/ccd.ccd_101_23. ISSN 0976-237X. PMC 10699192. PMID 38075534.
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  33. ^ Huang X, Yin Y, Huang W, Sun K, Cheng C, Bai L, Dai Y (September 2010). "[Alkaloids and lignans from stems of Piper betle]". Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi = Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi = China Journal of Chinese Materia Medica (in Chinese). 35 (17): 2285–8. PMID 21137339.
  34. ^ Wu YJ, Su TR, Chang CI, Chen CR, Hung KF, Liu C (May 2020). "(+)-Bornyl p-Coumarate Extracted from Stem of Piper betle Induced Apoptosis and Autophagy in Melanoma Cells". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 21 (10): 3737. doi:10.3390/ijms21103737. PMC 7279146. PMID 32466337.
  35. ^ Yang TY, Wu YJ, Chang CI, Chiu CC, Wu ML (May 2018). "The Effect of Bornyl cis-4-Hydroxycinnamate on Melanoma Cell Apoptosis Is Associated with Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 19 (5): 1370. doi:10.3390/ijms19051370. PMC 5983650. PMID 29734677.
  36. ^ Ghosh K, Bhattacharya TK (August 2005). "Chemical constituents of Piper betle Linn. (Piperaceae) roots". Molecules (Basel, Switzerland). 10 (7): 798–802. doi:10.3390/10070798. PMC 6147577. PMID 18007349.
  37. ^ Das, Suryasnata; Parida, Reena; Sandeep, I. Sriram; Kar, Basudev; Nayak, Sanghamitra; Mohanty, Sujata (2016). "Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of some important betel vine landraces". Biologia. 71 (2): 128–132. Bibcode:2016Biolg..71..128D. doi:10.1515/biolog-2016-0030. ISSN 1336-9563. S2CID 88132584.
  38. ^ Jan B. Orsini. "Success Case Replication – A Manual for Increasing Farmer Household Income, see case study 12 in the report".
  39. ^ "Life in the hill country of Sri Lanka". The Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations.
  40. ^ "Life in the hill country of Sri Lanka". The Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations.
  41. ^ a b c P. Guha (2006). "Betel Leaf – The neglected green gold of India" (PDF). 19 (2): 87–93. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  42. ^ "Betel-leaf farming benefiting farmers". The Independent. Dhaka. 6 May 2011. Archived from the original on 15 March 2012.
  43. ^ a b "Too costly to grow". CSE.
  44. ^ "Paan loses flavour". CSE.

Further reading

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[edit]
Look up betel in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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